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Another possible contributor to the observed cigarette smoking-induced epidermal hyperkeratinization is nicotine which has also been shown to increase various differentiation markers including filaggrin, involucrin, TG1 in keratinocytes 19 mediated by the activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors abundant in the skin 28

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These restrictions typically last one week but extend longer for complicated cases

Data on Smoking and Orthodontic Treatment Research highlights the tangible impacts smoking has on orthodontic treatment outcomes